Effects of Tcte1 knockout on energy chain transportation and spermatogenesis: implications for male infertility.

STUDY QUESTION: Is the Tcte1 mutation causative for male infertility? SUMMARY ANSWER: Our collected data underline the complex and devastating effect of the single-gene mutation on the testicular molecular network, leading to male reproductive failure. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY: Recent data have revealed mutations in genes related to axonemal dynein arms as causative for morphology and motility abnormalities in spermatozoa of infertile males, including dysplasia of fibrous sheath (DFS) and multiple morphological abnormalities in the sperm flagella (MMAF). The nexin-dynein regulatory complex (N-DRC) coordinates the dynein arm activity and is built from the DRC1-DRC7 proteins. DRC5 (TCTE1), one of the N-DRC elements, has already been reported as a candidate for abnormal sperm flagella beating; however, only in a restricted manner with no clear explanation of respective observations. STUDY DESIGN SIZE DURATION: Using the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing technique, a mouse Tcte1 gene knockout line was created on the basis of the C57Bl/6J strain. The mouse reproductive potential, semen characteristics, testicular gene expression levels, sperm ATP, and testis apoptosis level measurements were then assessed, followed by visualization of N-DRC proteins in sperm, and protein modeling in silico. Also, a pilot genomic sequencing study of samples from human infertile males (n = 248) was applied for screening of TCTE1 variants. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS SETTING METHODS: To check the reproductive potential of KO mice, adult animals were crossed for delivery of three litters per caged pair, but for no longer than for 6 months, in various combinations of zygosity. All experiments were performed for wild-type (WT, control group), heterozygous Tcte1+/- and homozygous Tcte1-/- male mice. Gross anatomy was performed on testis and epididymis samples, followed by semen analysis. Sequencing of RNA (RNAseq; Illumina) was done for mice testis tissues. STRING interactions were checked for protein-protein interactions, based on changed expression levels of corresponding genes identified in the mouse testis RNAseq experiments. Immunofluorescence in situ staining was performed to detect the N-DRC complex proteins: Tcte1 (Drc5), Drc7, Fbxl13 (Drc6), and Eps8l1 (Drc3) in mouse spermatozoa. To determine the amount of ATP in spermatozoa, the luminescence level was measured. In addition, immunofluorescence in situ staining was performed to check the level of apoptosis via caspase 3 visualization on mouse testis samples. DNA from whole blood samples of infertile males (n = 137 with non-obstructive azoospermia or cryptozoospermia, n = 111 samples with a spectrum of oligoasthenoteratozoospermia, including n = 47 with asthenozoospermia) was extracted to perform genomic sequencing (WGS, WES, or Sanger). Protein prediction modeling of human-identified variants and the exon 3 structure deleted in the mouse knockout was also performed. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE: No progeny at all was found for the homozygous males which were revealed to have oligoasthenoteratozoospermia, while heterozygous animals were fertile but manifested oligozoospermia, suggesting haploinsufficiency. RNA-sequencing of the testicular tissue showed the influence of Tcte1 mutations on the expression pattern of 21 genes responsible for mitochondrial ATP processing or linked with apoptosis or spermatogenesis. In Tcte1-/- males, the protein was revealed in only residual amounts in the sperm head nucleus and was not transported to the sperm flagella, as were other N-DRC components. Decreased ATP levels (2.4-fold lower) were found in the spermatozoa of homozygous mice, together with disturbed tail:midpiece ratios, leading to abnormal sperm tail beating. Casp3-positive signals (indicating apoptosis) were observed in spermatogonia only, at a similar level in all three mouse genotypes. Mutation screening of human infertile males revealed one novel and five ultra-rare heterogeneous variants (predicted as disease-causing) in 6.05% of the patients studied. Protein prediction modeling of identified variants revealed changes in the protein surface charge potential, leading to disruption in helix flexibility or its dynamics, thus suggesting disrupted interactions of TCTE1 with its binding partners located within the axoneme. LARGE SCALE DATA: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files. RNAseq data are available in the GEO database (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/) under the accession number GSE207805. The results described in the publication are based on whole-genome or exome sequencing data which includes sensitive information in the form of patient-specific germline variants. Information regarding such variants must not be shared publicly following European Union legislation, therefore access to raw data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. LIMITATIONS REASONS FOR CAUTION: In the study, the in vitro fertilization performance of sperm from homozygous male mice was not checked. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS: This study contains novel and comprehensive data concerning the role of TCTE1 in male infertility. The TCTE1 gene is the next one that should be added to the 'male infertility list' because of its crucial role in spermatogenesis and proper sperm functioning. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS: This work was supported by National Science Centre in Poland, grants no.: 2015/17/B/NZ2/01157 and 2020/37/B/NZ5/00549 (to M.K.), 2017/26/D/NZ5/00789 (to A.M.), and HD096723, GM127569-03, NIH SAP #4100085736 PA DoH (to A.N.Y.). The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research reported.

ESX1 gene as a potential candidate responsible for male infertility in nonobstructive azoospermia.

Infertility is a problem that affects approximately 15% of couples, and male infertility is responsible for 40-50% of these cases. The cause of male infertility is still poorly diagnosed and treated. One of the prominent causes of male infertility is disturbed spermatogenesis, which can lead to nonobstructive azoospermia (NOA). Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) allows us to identify novel rare variants in potentially NOA-associated genes, among others, in the ESX1 gene. The aim of this study was to activate the ESX1 gene using CRISPRa technology in human germ cells (testicular seminoma cells-TCam-2). Successful activation of the ESX1 gene in TCam-2 cells using the CRISPRa system was achieved, and the expression level of the ESX1 gene was significantly higher in modified TCam-2 cells than in WT cells or the negative control with nontargeted gRNA (p < 0.01). Using RNA-seq, a network of over 50 genes potentially regulated by the ESX1 gene was determined. Finally, 6 genes, NANOG, CXCR4, RPS6KA5, CCND1, PDE1C, and LINC00662, participating in cell proliferation and differentiation were verified in azoospermic patients with and without a mutation in the ESX1 gene as well as in men with normal spermatogenesis, where inverse correlations in the expression levels of the observed genes were noted.

In vivo versus in silico assessment of potentially pathogenic missense variants in human reproductive genes.

Infertility is a heterogeneous condition, with genetic causes thought to underlie a substantial fraction of cases. Genome sequencing is becoming increasingly important for genetic diagnosis of diseases including idiopathic infertility; however, most rare or minor alleles identified in patients are variants of uncertain significance (VUS). Interpreting the functional impacts of VUS is challenging but profoundly important for clinical management and genetic counseling. To determine the consequences of these variants in key fertility genes, we functionally evaluated 11 missense variants in the genes ANKRD31, BRDT, DMC1, EXO1, FKBP6, MCM9, M1AP, MEI1, MSH4 and SEPT12 by generating genome-edited mouse models. Nine variants were classified as deleterious by most functional prediction algorithms, and two disrupted a protein-protein interaction (PPI) in the yeast two hybrid (Y2H) assay. Though these genes are essential for normal meiosis or spermiogenesis in mice, only one variant, observed in the MCM9 gene of a male infertility patient, compromised fertility or gametogenesis in the mouse models. To explore the disconnect between predictions and outcomes, we compared pathogenicity calls of missense variants made by ten widely used algorithms to 1) those annotated in ClinVar and 2) those evaluated in mice. All the algorithms performed poorly in terms of predicting the effects of human missense variants modeled in mice. These studies emphasize caution in the genetic diagnoses of infertile patients based primarily on pathogenicity prediction algorithms and emphasize the need for alternative and efficient in vitro or in vivo functional validation models for more effective and accurate VUS description to either pathogenic or benign categories.

Genomic study of TEX15 variants: prevalence and allelic heterogeneity in men with spermatogenic failure.

Introduction: Human spermatogenesis is a highly intricate process that requires the input of thousands of testis-specific genes. Defects in any of them at any stage of the process can have detrimental effects on sperm production and/or viability. In particular, the function of many meiotic proteins encoded by germ cell specific genes is critical for maturation of haploid spermatids and viable spermatozoa, necessary for fertilization, and is also extremely sensitive to even the slightest change in coding DNA. Methods: Here, using whole exome and genome approaches, we identified and reported novel, clinically significant variants in testis-expressed gene 15 (TEX15), in unrelated men with spermatogenic failure (SPGF). Results: TEX15 mediates double strand break repair during meiosis. Recessive loss-of-function (LOF) TEX15 mutations are associated with SPGF in humans and knockout male mice are infertile. We expand earlier reports documenting heterogeneous allelic pathogenic TEX15 variants that cause a range of SPGF phenotypes from oligozoospermia (low sperm) to nonobstructive azoospermia (no sperm) with meiotic arrest and report the prevalence of 0.6% of TEX15 variants in our patient cohort. Among identified possible LOF variants, one homozygous missense substitution c.6835G>A (p.Ala2279Thr) co-segregated with cryptozoospermia in a family with SPGF. Additionally, we observed numerous cases of inferred in trans compound heterozygous variants in TEX15 among unrelated individuals with varying degrees of SPGF. Variants included splice site, insertions/deletions (indels), and missense substitutions, many of which resulted in LOF effects (i.e., frameshift, premature stop, alternative splicing, or potentially altered posttranslational modification sites). Conclusion: In conclusion, we performed an extensive genomic study of familial and sporadic SPGF and identified potentially damaging TEX15 variants in 7 of 1097 individuals of our combined cohorts. We hypothesize that SPGF phenotype severity is dictated by individual TEX15 variant's impact on structure and function. Resultant LOFs likely have deleterious effects on crossover/recombination in meiosis. Our findings support the notion of increased gene variant frequency in SPGF and its genetic and allelic heterogeneity as it relates to complex disease such as male infertility.

Whole-genome sequencing identifies new candidate genes for nonobstructive azoospermia.

BACKGROUND: Genetic causes that lead to spermatogenetic failure in patients with nonobstructive azoospermia (NOA) have not been yet completely established. OBJECTIVE: To identify low-frequency NOA-associated single nucleotide variants (SNVs) using whole-genome sequencing (WGS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Men with various types of NOA (n = 39), including samples that had been previously tested with whole-exome sequencing (WES; n = 6) and did not result in diagnostic conclusions. Variants were annotated using the Ensembl Variant Effect Predictor, utilizing frequencies from GnomAD and other databases to provide clinically relevant information (ClinVar), conservation scores (phyloP), and effect predictions (i.e., MutationTaster). Structural protein modeling was also performed. RESULTS: Using WGS, we revealed potential NOA-associated SNVs, such as: TKTL1, IGSF1, ZFPM2, VCX3A (novel disease causing variants), ESX1, TEX13A, TEX14, DNAH1, FANCM, QRICH2, FSIP2, USP9Y, PMFBP1, MEI1, PIWIL1, WDR66, ZFX, KCND1, KIAA1210, DHRSX, ZMYM3, FAM47C, FANCB, FAM50B (genes previously known to be associated with infertility) and ALG13, BEND2, BRWD3, DDX53, TAF4, FAM47B, FAM9B, FAM9C, MAGEB6, MAP3K15, RBMXL3, SSX3 and FMR1NB genes, which may be involved in spermatogenesis. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: In this study, we identified novel potential candidate NOA-associated genes in 29 individuals out of 39 azoospermic males. Note that in 5 out of 6 patients subjected previously to WES analysis, which did not disclose potentially causative variants, the WGS analysis was successful with NOA-associated gene findings.

Variants in GCNA, X-linked germ-cell genome integrity gene, identified in men with primary spermatogenic failure.

Male infertility impacts millions of couples yet, the etiology of primary infertility remains largely unknown. A critical element of successful spermatogenesis is maintenance of genome integrity. Here, we present a genomic study of spermatogenic failure (SPGF). Our initial analysis (n = 176) did not reveal known gene-candidates but identified a potentially significant single-nucleotide variant (SNV) in X-linked germ-cell nuclear antigen (GCNA). Together with a larger follow-up study (n = 2049), 7 likely clinically relevant GCNA variants were identified. GCNA is critical for genome integrity in male meiosis and knockout models exhibit impaired spermatogenesis and infertility. Single-cell RNA-seq and immunohistochemistry confirm human GCNA expression from spermatogonia to elongated spermatids. Five identified SNVs were located in key functional regions, including N-terminal SUMO-interacting motif and C-terminal Spartan-like protease domain. Notably, variant p.Ala115ProfsTer7 results in an early frameshift, while Spartan-like domain missense variants p.Ser659Trp and p.Arg664Cys change conserved residues, likely affecting 3D structure. For variants within GCNA's intrinsically disordered region, we performed computational modeling for consensus motifs. Two SNVs were predicted to impact the structure of these consensus motifs. All identified variants have an extremely low minor allele frequency in the general population and 6 of 7 were not detected in > 5000 biological fathers. Considering evidence from animal models, germ-cell-specific expression, 3D modeling, and computational predictions for SNVs, we propose that identified GCNA variants disrupt structure and function of the respective protein domains, ultimately arresting germ-cell division. To our knowledge, this is the first study implicating GCNA, a key genome integrity factor, in human male infertility.

Familial Infertility (Azoospermia and Cryptozoospermia) in Two Brothers-Carriers of t(1;7) Complex Chromosomal Rearrangement (CCR): Molecular Cytogenetic Analysis.

Structural aberrations involving more than two breakpoints on two or more chromosomes are known as complex chromosomal rearrangements (CCRs). They can reduce fertility through gametogenesis arrest developed due to disrupted chromosomal pairing in the pachytene stage. We present a familial case of two infertile brothers (with azoospermia and cryptozoospermia) and their mother, carriers of an exceptional type of CCR involving chromosomes 1 and 7 and three breakpoints. The aim was to identify whether meiotic disruption was caused by CCR and/or genomic mutations. Additionally, we performed a literature survey for male CCR carriers with reproductive failures. The characterization of the CCR chromosomes and potential genomic aberrations was performed using: G-banding using trypsin and Giemsa staining (GTG banding), fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) (including multicolor FISH (mFISH) and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-FISH), and genome-wide array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH). The CCR description was established as: der(1)(1qter->1q42.3::1p21->1q42.3::7p14.3->7pter), der(7)(1pter->1p2 1::7p14.3->7qter). aCGH revealed three rare genes variants: ASMT, GARNL3, and SESTD1, which were ruled out due to unlikely biological functions. The aCGH analysis of three breakpoint CCR regions did not reveal copy number variations (CNVs) with biologically plausible genes. Synaptonemal complex evaluation (brother-1; spermatocytes II/oligobiopsy; the silver staining technique) showed incomplete conjugation of the chromosomes. Associations between CCR and the sex chromosomes (by FISH) were not found. A meiotic segregation pattern (brother-2; ejaculated spermatozoa; FISH) revealed 29.21% genetically normal/balanced spermatozoa. The aCGH analysis could not detect smaller intergenic CNVs of few kb or smaller (indels of single exons or few nucleotides). Since chromosomal aberrations frequently do not affect the phenotype of the carrier, in contrast to the negative influence on spermatogenesis, there is an obvious need for genomic sequencing to investigate the point mutations that may be responsible for the differences between the azoospermic and cryptozoospermic phenotypes observed in a family. Progeny from the same parents provide a unique opportunity to discover a novel genomic background of male infertility.

In vivo modeling of metastatic human high-grade serous ovarian cancer in mice.

Metastasis is responsible for 90% of human cancer mortality, yet it remains a challenge to model human cancer metastasis in vivo. Here we describe mouse models of high-grade serous ovarian cancer, also known as high-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC), the most common and deadliest human ovarian cancer type. Mice genetically engineered to harbor Dicer1 and Pten inactivation and mutant p53 robustly replicate the peritoneal metastases of human HGSC with complete penetrance. Arising from the fallopian tube, tumors spread to the ovary and metastasize throughout the pelvic and peritoneal cavities, invariably inducing hemorrhagic ascites. Widespread and abundant peritoneal metastases ultimately cause mouse deaths (100%). Besides the phenotypic and histopathological similarities, mouse HGSCs also display marked chromosomal instability, impaired DNA repair, and chemosensitivity. Faithfully recapitulating the clinical metastases as well as molecular and genomic features of human HGSC, this murine model will be valuable for elucidating the mechanisms underlying the development and progression of metastatic ovarian cancer and also for evaluating potential therapies.

X-linked ADGRG2 mutation and obstructive azoospermia in a large Pakistani family.

We performed whole exome sequencing to identify an unknown genetic cause of azoospermia and male infertility in a large Pakistani family. Three infertile males were subjected to semen analysis, hormone testing, testicular histology, ultrasonography, karyotyping, Y-chromosome microdeletion and CFTR testing. The clinical testing suggested a diagnosis of obstructive azoospermia (OA). To identify the cause, we performed whole exome sequencing (WES) for 2 infertile brothers and 2 fertile family members. For segregation analysis and variant confirmation, we performed Sanger sequencing. WES data analysis of the family revealed segregated variants in 3 candidate genes. We considered novel nonsense variant c.2440C > T(p.Arg814*) in X-linked gene ADGRG2 as biologically most plausible. It is predicted to truncate the protein by 204 amino acids (aa) at a key transmembrane domain. Adgrg2-knockout male mice show sperm loss due to obstructive fluid stasis, while ADGRG2 mutations cause OA in the infertile male patients. Our analysis of testicular histology reveals secondary severe reduction of spermatogenesis, consistent with human and knockout mouse phenotypes. The ADGRG2 nonsense mutation is absent in the largest population databases, ExAC and gnomAD. Analysis of the novel nonsense mutation in extended family members confirmed co-segregation of the mutation with OA in all affected males. The likely pathogenic nature of the mutation is supported by its truncation effect on the transmembrane domain and distinctive ultrasound results. The study demonstrates effectiveness of WES in discovering a genetic cause of azoospermia.

Reproductive genetics and the aging male.

PURPOSE: To examine current evidence of the known effects of advanced paternal age on sperm genetic and epigenetic changes and associated birth defects and diseases in offspring. METHODS: Review of published PubMed literature. RESULTS: Advanced paternal age (> 40 years) is associated with accumulated damage to sperm DNA and mitotic and meiotic quality control mechanisms (mismatch repair) during spermatogenesis. This in turn causes well-delineated abnormalities in sperm chromosomes, both numerical and structural, and increased sperm DNA fragmentation (3%/year of age) and single gene mutations (relative risk, RR 10). An increase in related abnormalities in offspring has also been described, including miscarriage (RR 2) and fetal loss (RR 2). There is also a significant increase in rare, single gene disorders (RR 1.3 to 12) and congenital anomalies (RR 1.2) in offspring. Current research also suggests that autism, schizophrenia, and other forms of "psychiatric morbidity" are more likely in offspring (RR 1.5 to 5.7) with advanced paternal age. Genetic defects related to faulty sperm quality control leading to single gene mutations and epigenetic alterations in several genetic pathways have been implicated as root causes. CONCLUSIONS: Advanced paternal age is associated with increased genetic and epigenetic risk to offspring. However, the precise age at which risk develops and the magnitude of the risk are poorly understood or may have gradual effects. Currently, there are no clinical screenings or diagnostic panels that target disorders associated with advanced paternal age. Concerned couples and care providers should pursue or recommend genetic counseling and prenatal testing regarding specific disorders.

Familial deletion of the HOXA gene cluster associated with Hand-Foot-Genital syndrome and phenotypic variability.

Hand-Foot-Genital syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant condition characterized by distal limb anomalies and urogenital malformations. This disorder is associated with loss-of-function mutations in the HOXA13 gene. HOXA13 plays an important role in the development of distal limbs and lower genitourinary tract of the fetus. We report a novel familial 589 kb deletion in the 7p15.2 region identified in a male toddler and his mother. The proband had severe penoscrotal hypospadias, mild skeletal anomalies of the hands and feet, cardiac, renal, and gastrointestinal anomalies. His mother had a bicornuate uterus, cervical incompetence, and minor anomalies of her hands and feet. This family was found to have the smallest reported deletion of 7p15.2 to date, and presented with features typical of Hand-Foot-Genital syndrome in the mother, but much more severe phenotype in her son. This deletion included the entire HOXA cluster in addition to the SKAP2 and EVX1 genes. An RT-PCR analysis was performed to determine the expression of the HOXA genes in the proband and to explore a parent-of-origin effect. Our expression studies did not support the hypothesis of an imprinted status of the HOXA2, HOXA3, HOXA5, and HOXA11 genes in peripheral blood. To our knowledge, this is the first familial 7p15.2 deletion. This family raises possibility for sexual dimorphism as a mechanism for phenotypic variability in patients with the HOXA gene cluster deletions. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Genetic dosage and position effect of small supernumerary marker chromosome (sSMC) in human sperm nuclei in infertile male patient.

Chromosomes occupy specific distinct areas in the nucleus of the sperm cell that may be altered in males with disrupted spermatogenesis. Here, we present alterations in the positioning of the human chromosomes 15, 18, X and Y between spermatozoa with the small supernumerary marker chromosome (sSMC; sSMC(+)) and spermatozoa with normal chromosome complement (sSMC(-)), for the first time described in the same ejaculate of an infertile, phenotypically normal male patient. Using classical and confocal fluorescent microscopy, the nuclear colocalization of chromosomes 15 and sSMC was analyzed. The molecular cytogenetic characteristics of sSMC delineated the karyotype as 47,XY,+der(15)(pter->p11.2::q11.1->q11.2::p11.2->pter)mat. Analysis of meiotic segregation showed a 1:1 ratio of sSMC(+) to sSMC(-) spermatozoa, while evaluation of sperm aneuploidy status indicated an increased level of chromosome 13, 18, 21 and 22 disomy, up to 7 × (2.7 - 15.1). Sperm chromatin integrity assessment did not reveal any increase in deprotamination in the patient's sperm chromatin. Importantly, we found significant repositioning of chromosomes X and Y towards the nuclear periphery, where both chromosomes were localized in close proximity to the sSMC. This suggests the possible influence of sSMC/XY colocalization on meiotic chromosome division, resulting in abnormal chromosome segregation, and leading to male infertility in the patient.

FISH and array CGH characterization of de novo derivative Y chromosome (Yq duplication and partial Yp deletion) in an azoospermic male.

This study presents a 28-year-old infertile male who was referred to the cytogenetic laboratory for chromosomal analysis after 4 years of regular unprotected intercourse in whom non-obstructive azoospermia was revealed. Standard cytogenetic G-banding was performed on metaphase spreads and a de-novo karyotype 46,X,der(Y)(q11.22;p11.3) was identified. This analysis was followed by flourescence in-situ hybridization(FISH) and array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH). Finally, the patient's karyotype was identified as 46,X,der(Y)(qter→q11.221::p11.31→qter).ish der(Y) (qter+,pter-,SHOX+,SRY+,Ycen+,DYZ3+;DYZ1+,qter+).arrYq11.221q12(14,448,863-59,288,511) x2, Yp11.32p11.31(104,062-266,388) x0. It is proposed that de-novo derivative monocentric Y chromosome with duplicated region Y qter→q11.221::p11.31→qter with partial deletion of Yp PAR1 region most probably can perturb the conjugation of sex chromosomes during first meiotic division of spermatogenic arrested differentiation (development).

X-linked TEX11 mutations, meiotic arrest, and azoospermia in infertile men.

BACKGROUND: The genetic basis of nonobstructive azoospermia is unknown in the majority of infertile men. METHODS: We performed array comparative genomic hybridization testing in blood samples obtained from 15 patients with azoospermia, and we performed mutation screening by means of direct Sanger sequencing of the testis-expressed 11 gene (TEX11) open reading frame in blood and semen samples obtained from 289 patients with azoospermia and 384 controls. RESULTS: We identified a 99-kb hemizygous loss on chromosome Xq13.2 that involved three TEX11 exons. This loss, which was identical in 2 patients with azoospermia, predicts a deletion of 79 amino acids within the meiosis-specific sporulation domain SPO22. Our subsequent mutation screening showed five novel TEX11 mutations: three splicing mutations and two missense mutations. These mutations, which occurred in 7 of 289 men with azoospermia (2.4%), were absent in 384 controls with normal sperm concentrations (P=0.003). Notably, five of those TEX11 mutations were detected in 33 patients (15%) with azoospermia who received a diagnosis of azoospermia with meiotic arrest. Meiotic arrest in these patients resembled the phenotype of Tex11-deficient male mice. Immunohistochemical analysis showed specific cytoplasmic TEX11 expression in late spermatocytes, as well as in round and elongated spermatids, in normal human testes. In contrast, testes of patients who had azoospermia with TEX11 mutations had meiotic arrest and lacked TEX11 expression. CONCLUSIONS: In our study, hemizygous TEX11 mutations were a common cause of meiotic arrest and azoospermia in infertile men. (Funded by the National Institutes of Health and others.).

High quality RNA in semen and sperm: isolation, analysis and potential application in clinical testing.

PURPOSE: Male infertility is a complex health condition. To our knowledge there are no molecular biomarkers of male infertility. Sperm RNA is a potential biomarker for detecting sperm abnormalities and viability at infertility clinics. However, RNA use is hindered by its inconsistent quantity, quality, multiple cell types in semen and condensed sperm structure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We tested the usefulness of high quality RNA isolated from mature sperm and whole semen by our protocol, which reduces RNA degradation by maintaining semen and protocol components at 37 C and decreasing processing time. We isolated RNA from 83 whole semen samples, 18 samples of motile sperm prepared by the swim-up protocol and 18 of sperm prepared by the standard Percoll gradient method. RESULTS: Electrophoretic and spectral analysis of RNA revealed high quality 18S and 28S rRNAs in 71 of 83 whole semen samples (86%) and 15 of 18 mature sperm swim-up samples (83%). However, high quality RNA was isolated from only 7 of 18 Percoll gradient sperm samples (39%). Interestingly quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis of 4 somatic and 10 germ cell markers showed that whole semen and swim-up samples had similar RNA profiles. RNA sequencing revealed that most encoded proteins were involved in mature sperm function, regulation of DNA replication, transcription, translation, cell cycle and embryo development. CONCLUSIONS: We believe that semen and sperm specific RNAs are highly informative biomarkers for germ cell stages and somatic cell contribution. Therefore, these RNAs could be valuable diagnostic indicators of sperm survival, fertilization and early embryogenesis, and could serve as a predictor of the in vitro fertilization prognosis.

Cytogenetic and molecular analyses of de novo translocation dic(9;13)(p11.2;p12) in an infertile male.

BACKGROUND: Whole arm t(9;13)(p11;p12) translocations are rare and have been described only a few times; all of the previously reported cases were familial. RESULTS: We present here an infertile male carrier with a whole-arm reciprocal translocation dic(9;13)(p11.2;p12) revealed by GTG-, C-, and NOR-banding karyotypes with no mature sperm cells in his ejaculate. FISH and genome-wide 400 K CGH microarray (Agilent) analyses demonstrated a balanced chromosome complement and further characterised the abnormality as a dicentric chromosome (9;13): dic(9;13)(pter→p11.2::p12→qter),neo(9)(pter→p12→neo→p11.2). An analysis of the patient's ejaculated cells identified immature germ cells at different phases of spermatogenesis but no mature spermatozoa. Most (82.5%) of the germ cells were recognised as spermatocytes at stage I, and the cell nuclei were most frequently found in pachytene I (41.8%). We have also undertaken FISH analysis and documented an increased rate of aneuploidy of chromosomes 15, 18, X and Y in the peripheral blood leukocytes of our patient. To study the aneuploidy risk in leukocytes, we have additionally included 9 patients with non-obstructive azoospermia with normal karyotypes. CONCLUSIONS: We propose that the azoospermia observed in the patient with the dic(9;13)(p11.2;p12) translocation was most likely a consequence of a very high proportion (90%) of association between XY bivalents and quadrivalent formations in prophase I.

UBE2B mRNA alterations are associated with severe oligozoospermia in infertile men.

Oligozoospermia (low sperm count) is a common semen deficiency. However, to date, few genetic defects have been identified to cause this condition. Moreover, even fewer molecular genetic diagnostic tests are available for patients with oligozoospermia in the andrology clinic. Based on animal and gene expression studies of oligozoospermia, several molecular pathways may be disrupted in post-meiotic spermatozoa. One of the disrupted pathways is protein ubiquitination and cell apoptosis. A critical protein involved in this pathway is the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 2B, UBE2B. Absence of Ube2b in male mice causes spermatogenic meiotic disruption with increased apoptosis, leading to infertility. To examine the association between messenger RNA defects in UBE2B and severe oligozoospermia (0.1-10 × 10(6) cells/ml), sequencing of sperm cDNA in 326 oligozoospermic patients and 421 normozoospermic men was performed. mRNA alterations in UBE2B were identified in sperm in 4.6% (15 out of 326) of the oligozoospermic patients, but not found in control men, suggesting strong association between mRNA defects and oligozoospermia (χ(2) = 19, P = 0.0001). Identified UBE2B alterations include nine splicing, four missense and two nonsense alterations. The follow-up screen of corresponding DNA regions did not reveal causative DNA mutations, suggesting a post-transcriptional nature of identified defects. None of these variants were reported in the dbSNP database, although other splicing abnormalities with low level of expression were present in 11 out of 421 (2.6%) controls. Our findings suggest that two distinct molecular mechanisms, mRNA editing and splicing processing, are disrupted in oligozoospermia. We speculate that the contribution of post-transcriptional mRNA defects to oligozoospermia could be greater than previously anticipated.

The Genetics of Infertility: Current Status of the Field.

Infertility is a relatively common health condition, affecting nearly 7% of all couples. Clinically, it is a highly heterogeneous pathology with a complex etiology that includes environmental and genetic factors. It has been estimated that nearly 50% of infertility cases are due to genetic defects. Hundreds of studies with animal knockout models convincingly showed infertility to be caused by gene defects, single or multiple. However, despite enormous efforts, progress in translating basic research findings into clinical studies has been challenging. The genetic causes remain unexplained for the vast majority of male or female infertility patients. A particular difficulty is the huge number of candidate genes to be studied; there are more than 2,300 genes expressed in the testis alone, and hundreds of those genes influence reproductive function in humans and could contribute to male infertility. At present, there are only a handful of genes or genetic defects that have been shown to cause, or to be strongly associated with, primary infertility. Yet, with completion of the human genome and progress in personalized medicine, the situation is rapidly changing. Indeed, there are 10-15 new gene tests, on average, being added to the clinical genetic testing list annually.

Association of mutations in the zona pellucida binding protein 1 (ZPBP1) gene with abnormal sperm head morphology in infertile men.

Nearly 7% of men are afflicted by male infertility worldwide, and genetic factors are suspected to play a significant role in the majority of these patients. Although sperm morphology is an important parameter measured in the semen analysis, only a few genetic causes of teratozoospermia are currently known. The objective of this study was to define the association between alterations in the genes encoding the Golgi-associated PDZ- and coiled-coil motif containing protein (GOPC), the protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1) and the acrosomal protein zona pellucida binding protein 1 (ZPBP1/sp38) with abnormal sperm head morphology in infertile men. Previous reports demonstrated that mice lacking Gopc, Pick1 and Zpbp1 are infertile due to abnormal head morphology. Herein, using our validated RNA-based method, we studied spermatozoal cDNA encoding the human GOPC, PICK1 and ZPBP1 genes in 381 teratozoospermic and 240 controls patients via direct sequencing. Among these genes, we identified missense and splicing mutations in the sperm cDNA encoding ZPBP1 in 3.9% (15/381) of men with abnormal sperm head morphology. These mutations were not observed in 240 matched controls and the dbSNP database (χ(2) = 9.3, P = 0.002). In contrast, statistically significant and functionally relevant mutations were not discovered in the GOPC and PICK1 genes. In our study ZPBP1 mutations are associated with abnormal sperm head morphology, defined according to strict criteria, resembling the mouse Zpbp1 null phenotype. We hypothesize that missense mutations exert a dominant-negative effect due to altered ZPBP1 protein folding and protein:protein interactions in the acrosome.